The attached bibliography, "Fire Effects on Cultural Resources: A Bibliographic Survey of Specific and Related Literature" was compiled by Kirk Halford of the Bishop Field Office for the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) Preservation Board. The bibliography is not exhaustive, but represents an excellent starting point for anyone investigating the subject. We are grateful to Kirk for his willingness to take on this task. The diversity of topics addressed among the references of the bibliography is extensive; ranging from the effects of fire on the radiocarbon dating of the Shroud of Turin (Long 1998), to experiments in the replication of fire-cracked rock (House and Smith, 1975), to a model for assessing and treating sites using fire rehabilitation funds (Sydoriak, et.al.1998).
This is a compilation of references. It is divided into five sections, based on their source. Some are annotated, and many are not. The sections are organized in no particular order, and there may be some duplication between sections. The "Fire Management Section" contains an article by Paul Nickens entitled "The Destruction of Archaeological Sites" that is worthwhile reading for a broad perspective about sources of archaeological site destruction, and includes bibliographic references worth looking over. Particularly useful bibliographic references are provided at the final section entitled, "Western Archaeological & Conservation Center Draft Bibliography of Fire Effects on Cultural Resources."
The literature indicates that there are no simple answers to questions about how fire affects cultural resources, or how cultural resources should be considered and managed under the National Fire Program. Many variables must be accounted for in any effort to anticipate the effects of any particular fire on any particular cultural resource. For example, anticipating the effects of fire on a cultural deposit may require that the sediments in which it occurs be assessed for moisture, chemistry and composition. Evidently, moist, compact, small-grained soils low in organic content transfer less heat below the surface than dry, loose, organic, coarse soils. Fuel load is also a variable to consider. Some fuel types burn much hotter and with longer duration than others. Some fuels have deep root systems which may smolder for days raising dramatically
the subsurface temperature adjacent to the root and any cultural materials there. Some cultural materials are more vulnerable to fire effects than others. Cultural materials of wood or paper are, of course, more flammable than others such as stone or metal. However, any cultural material, sufficiently heated, will be the worse for wear.
In addition to understanding the relevant variables of a particular fire event, we must also consider the cumulative effects of repeated fires through time. Some have argued that archaeological sites in fire prone areas have been burned before, and we shouldn't be overly concerned about burning them again. A single fire event may not appear to affect dramatically a particular archaeological property, but what happens to the integrity of the property after exposure to repeated fire events, or high intensity burns? Similarly, how do we account for cultural materials spared by the heat of a fire, but subjected to the effects of post-fire exposure and erosion, or subsequent restoration and rehabilitation actions? Again, the answers to these questions depend on many variables that are difficult to quantify, and in many instances, there is simply no reliable data upon which to base an answer.
The difficulty inherent in anticipating the effects of fire on cultural resources means we need to be well versed about investigations that are available in the literature in order to more fully integrate cultural heritage issues into the wildland fire program. Where possible and applicable, information derived from these and other sources should be used for building prescriptions and conditions to fire plans and fuel reduction activities that are responsive to both the fragility and durability of various types of cultural resources.
If you have questions concerning this publication or historic preservation in the light of fire-related activities, please feel free to contact Alan Stanfill, WO-240, at (303) 236-1734.
Signed by: Authenticated by:
Marilyn W. Nickels, Ph.D. Barbara J. Brown
Group Manager, Cultural Heritage, Policy & Records Group, WO-560
Fossil Resources & Tribal Coordination
